Egypt

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Geography
Pomponius Mela considers Egypt to be a boundary of Asia, specifically the Nile. Herodotus: During the reign of its first human king, Egypt was entirely swampland, before being given the delta as the gift of the Nile. The Ionians say that Egypt is the delta. But Herodotus denies this pointing out that the delta is alluvial and therefore of recent origin. The first Egyptians were from upper Egypt and migrated down with the river, so that finally Thebes was Egypt. Egypt divides Libya and Asia. Egypt has “more wonders than any other land and monuments beyond description. Since climate and flow of the Nile differ (from other places), so too Egyptian customs. Pomponius Mela: “The inhabitants of Egypt live very differently from others”.

Climate
The Hippocratic Corpus says that because Egypt is between Europe and Asia, it experiences a diversity of environmental conditions and thus its people are similarly diverse. It goes on to say that Egyptians contrary to the Scythians are dried out by the sun and that they are uniform amongst themselves

The Nile
Herodotus states that it was the opinion of certain priests in Egypt that the Greeks were eternally cursed by drought, or the potential for it, since they lacked a river system such as the Nile which allowed the Egyptians to maintain agricultural projects without being at the mercy of rain. Herodotus also relates the story of a certain man he met in Egypt who claimed the source of the Nile to be bottomless, and flowed down on either side of the mountains named “Crophi” and “Mophi”. The Egyptians also felt that the nature of the Nile allowed for preservation of their nation and monuments, as Plato writes in Timaeus: “In Egypt, though, neither during great floods nor at other times did water flow over our land from the skies. Instead, all water has risen up naturally from below. Thus whatever is preserved here is found to be most ancient.” The Egyptians utilized a system of canals and dams to ensure that even during times of the year when the Nile was not at a high flood point, the water necessary for crops would be provided Lucan mentions that “Furthermore, the Nile is ignorant of the laws that govern other waters: it does not swell in winter, when the sun is remote and water is free from responsibility.”

Characteristics
He also comments that the Scythians are flabby because they do not swaddle themselves as the Egyptians do. Herodotus says that the heads of Egyptians were strong because, having been shaved from an early age which also leads to less baldness, they were hardened by the sun. Manilius believes that the Nile moderates the climate of Egypt, making them only moderately dark.

Customs
Pliny the Elder claims that the Egyptians count days from “midnight to midnight” .Story of Psammetichus trying to find out what is the oldest culture is by having two children raised far away from society by servants with their tongue out to see what their first word is demonstrates the importance in Egyptian culture placed on their antiquity in terms of the rest of the world and the emphasis laid by Herodotus in later passages that echo this by showing how much cultures like the Greeks borrowed from the Egyptians. The Egyptians are believed to be the first to set up a twelve month calendar. The Egyptians also were the first to conceive of the twelve gods, assign altars and statues and temples to the gods and carved stone statues. This shows the Egyptians as pious, organised and almost acting as the mother city to other cultures on how to set up their lives by calendars and religion. . The civilising element of the Egyptian customs. The Ethiopians become more civilised when Egyptian soldiers defected from Psammetichus and gave themselves over to the Ethiopian king. As the two civilisations mingled, the Ethiopians became more civilised through learning Egyptian customs. . Lengthy passage on the different religious, and familial customs of Egypt. Herodotus places emphasis the difference between Egyptian and Greek customs and the differences between genders. Herodotus believes that, because of a difference in climate, Egyptian men have altogether different laws and customs and due to this everything is done in the opposite direction to the Greeks. Women sell in the market, men stay at home. The wool is pushed down. The women urinate standing up, the men sitting down. They go to the bathroom indoors but eat out in the streets. Only men are deities and daughters must take of their parents, sons only do if they so desire. Religious customs include only priests wearing their hair long, and only being allowed to sacrifice a male cows if they do not have one black hair and if it carries twisting papyrus around his horns and is stamped. Customary practices are focused around cleanliness, focus of this is detailed extensively in 2.37. . Detailed description of the sacrificial practices and what is and is not acceptable to sacrifice to the gods. Egyptians don’t sacrifice the head because it is seen as if something bad happens, then it falls on the head of the person. Female animals are not allowed to be sacrificed due to the imagery of Isis. This is why Egyptians won’t eat with Greeks or kiss them on the mouth, as they eat female animals. They bury cattle either by throwing them in the river if female or in the neighbourhood if male. Then the rotted flesh is delivered to an island called Prosopitis. Pigs are seen as unclean and therefore, anybody who works with them becomes a social pariah along with their families. The customs of Egypt are unchangeable. The young people practice beautiful dance postures and songs daily. Once forms were establishes for songs and forms, they were depicted on the temples and it was not permitted for anyone to work on innovation or go against custom. Wherever Anubis is worshiped, dogs are granted honours and holy food. An example of a religious custom in Egypt in which animals are worshipped by the different tribes in Egypt. Common practice but each place has a different slant. A common custom that has been changed to suit the needs and preoccupations of the local population. In Abydus, your status and occupation stops you from worshipping the god Osiris in the temple and the crocodile is hated whilst most Egyptians worship it. Clay is mixed with the hands whilst the feet mix a particular kind of bread. All children are circumcision More condensed version of many of the details found in Herodotus’ account of Egyptian customs. Mourning is done whilst smearing with manure and it is sacrilege to bury or cremate the dead. Men raise the children and women go to the forum and do business. Egyptians are savage but are luxurious. Two tribes in Egypt clash over religious divinities on religious days. They throw rocks, they riot, and anyone caught by Ombi is cut up into many pieces and the mob eats him raw.

Age
Herodotus: The Egyptians, through testing the words of children not officially taught any language, conclude that they are at least younger than the Phrygians. Plato: However in this account, it is said that the Athenians are the oldest, and the culture of Egypt was given to them by Athena.

Religion
Herodotus: Egyptians are believed to be the first to know the names of the twelve gods and to have altars, temples and statues. Egyptian priests eat beef and geese as sacred food, although they are not permitted to sow or consume beans. They are forbidden to even look at beans, because they are unclean. This concern relates back to a regard which the priestly caste has for cleanliness. Priests are circumcised, and they shave their entire bodies each day. They wash twice in cold water and twice in warm water each day Herodotus reports that Egyptian priests “consider it a religious imperative not to kill any living thing except during a sacrificial rite”. The Egyptians did not sacrifice goats, and they revered male goats especially. Herodotus states that this is due to Egyptian practices recognizing the god Pan as an early forerunner to the twelve gods. They, like the Greeks, depicted the god as goat-headed, but in actuality, they believed that Pan looked less theriomorphic, like other gods. Herodotus also states that the task of selecting animals for sacrifice fell to the priests. Once the tongue, hair color, and the tail of a bull were properly analyzed, the priest marked the bull by twisted papyrus around its horn. If an animal was sacrificed without being checked by a priest, the offending party would be put to death. There is some dispute as to the origin and diffusion of religious practices in Egypt. Plato suggests that Egyptian religious practices originated with the Athenians. However, Herodotus states that Athenian religious shrines and statuary originated with the Egyptians. Furthermore, Diodorus Siculus suggests that Egyptian religious practices were informed by an Ethiopian precedent.

Language
Herodotus: Psammetichus’ experiment to see which language/people were oldest, the Egyptians or the Phrygians. Because the children first uttered a Phrygian word, the pharaoh conceded that the Phrygians were older than the Egyptians. Herodotus reports that the story was told by the priests of Hephaestus at Memphis and that the Greeks also told exaggerated versions. The Hellenes write from left to right, the Egyptians from right to left, and say that they are doing it “rightly” while the Hellenes do it “leftly”. The Ammonians use a language that is a mixture of Egyptian and Ethiopian. The language of the Ethiopians is wholly unique: “it sounds like bats shrieking”. Pomponius Mela: Egyptians “write their letters in the wrong direction”.

Animals
Of the various animals in Egypt, cows are the most frequently mentioned. According to Herodotus it was against the practice of the Libyans to sacrifice cows. They would also inspect the hair of their cattle to make sure that they are clean. Certain animals were also deemed sacred and were not sacrificed, such as the goat or the sheep. Egyptians also believe the pig to be an unclean animal and therefore do not touch it. The strangest records about any animal is that of a goat that engaged in sex with a woman.