India

Geography, Land, and Climate
Herodotus says that India is closest to the dawn and the rising sun. Sand covers the east of India, which contains gold-dust. Of the many tribes in India, some live in marshes on the Indus river, subsisting on raw fish.

Ctesias states that the Indus river is between 4.5 miles to 23 miles wide at its broadest point. It does not rain in India, but the region is watered by the Indus river, Where the Indus River flows, the bamboo “is said to grow so wide that two men joining their arms together would be unable to wrap their arms around it.” Thunder, lightning, and rain do not fall in India, but there are frequent winds and tornadoes. There is a river of honey which flows from a rock. Near the source of the Indus River, a purple flower grows, from which a very bright purple dye can be extracted. Ctesias writes of a spring in India which is around 30 feet in circumference. The spring itself lies 45 feet down, but the water itself is 180 feet down.

Pomponius Mela states that the land of India is very rich in some places with soil “so fertile that honey there flows from leaves, trees produce wool, and split bamboo shoots [are so large] they convey, as if boats, two or even three people at the same time. . Philostratus says that the whole land of India is swarming with snakes of unaccountable size.

Physical Characteristics
According to Herodotus, Indians, “Wear clothes made of water plants. Whenever they cut and harvest an abundance of reeds from the river they plait them as one does a mat and don them as corselets,” Additionally the skin of Indians is said to be near identical to that of the Ethiopians. And like the Ethiopians, the Indians ejaculate black semen.

Ctesias describes the pygmies who are said to be anywhere from two to three feet tall. They, “Have very long hair all the way down to their knees [...] When their beards grow to great length, they no longer wear clothes, but their hair, which drag near their feet, wrap around their bodies in place of clothes. They then gird themselves with leather thongs,” Ctesias also focuses on the genitals of the pygmies as they are said to be enormous and, “Hang to their ankles,” There are also men who live in the mountains who have the heads of dogs. “They wear clothes made from wild animal skins and have no language at all except by barking,” Regarding clothes, Ctesias tells us that Indians crush small animals from which, “They extract a dye used for cloaks, tunics, and whatever else they want,”

There are people who are called the Cunocephaloi who, “Clothe themselves in fine, smoothed, leather, not animal furs. The wealthiest among them, few in number, dress in linen. Their sexual behavior is like those of dogs and their newly born offspring are extremely strange in appearance for they have no anus. Instead, “They have fleshy haunches at the hip and the orifice develops as they grow up. It is said that they urinate a substance similar to cheese that is not entirely solid, but is thick,”

In the Indian mountains there are women who give birth to babies with teeth. Both men and women, “Are born with grey hair on both their heads and brows. Up until the age of thirty, the men have white hair covering their bodies, but it begins to turn black. By the age of sixty, the hair is completely black. Both male and female have eight fingers and toes. [...] They have ears so large that they can cover their arms down to the elbow and also cover the back. The ears also touch each other,”

According to Arrian, there are the Sibae whose clothes are, “Spotted like those of Dionysus’ Bacchants,” while there are still others who, “Carry a club and brand their cows with a club,” which is behavior like that of Hercules. He compares both Indians and Ethiopians in that aside from their black skin and hair, they both have flat noses. However, he asserts that “The more northern Indians are especially like the Egyptians in their physical appearance,” He also reports the findings of Megasthenes and how there are tribes who, “Wore the skins of wild animals,” In addition to this, he describes the coming of Dionysus to India and how it was the Bacchic God, himself who, “Showed the Indians how to grow their hair long for the god. He taught them how to wear a mitre and put on oily perfumes,” Arrian also describes Indians who wear linen cloth that comes from trees. More specifically, it is a linen tunic, “That falls between their knee and ankle and one cloth wrapped around the shoulders, and another tied around their head. Some Indians wear ivory if they are very wealthy,” The most interesting aspect about the Indian culture is that of beard dying. Arrian reports Nearchus’ claims that, “The Indians dye their beards with different colors. Some dye them white to appear as white as possible, others dye them blue, red, purple, or even spring green,”

Strabo also reports the findings of Megasthenes in that there are, “Men who are forty-five inches tall and even twenty-seven inches tall and some of them lack noses and have only two air-holes above the mouth,” The origin of these people is not given. Strabo also says that there are men with cavernous ears that could be used as a sleeping area. There are also those who, “Have their feet reversed, with the heels in the front and the balls of their feet and toes in the back,” However, he does not give any direct evidence of having ever come into contact with these strange, foreign, people. The wise men of the area, “Tell of the Oypodes, who run as fast as horses, and the Encotocoitae whose ears stretch to their feet and which are so strong they use them to pull up trees and snap bow strings,” He takes other claims that, “There are also one-eyed people who have ears like dogs and a single eye in the middle of their forehead,” at face value and does not question the ridiculousness of the story, but simply reports it He continues to report Megasthenes’ findings and says that the, “Brahmins [have] hides for clothes. They [...] wear clothes made of fine linen and wear gold adornments on their ears and hands,” (Strabo, Geography 15.1.57 = RECW 13.4 p 289 Strabo also describes the Naked Pramnae, who go about on a daily basis in the nude There are also people nearby who dress in linen or flax and braid their hair into a turban

Religion and Customs
Herodotus gives a detailed account concerning the people of India. He states that they are made up of numerous tribes, none of whom speak the same language, with some being nomadic while others are not. Those who live by the rivers make their clothes from water plants, and utilize reeds in the crafting of boats and clothing. East of these river-dwellers are the Padaeoi, who are nomadic and consume raw flesh. Supposedly, if one of the Padaeoi becomes ill the are killed by their closest friends of the same gender under the reasoning that if one wastes away from a disease then their usefulness as a meat is gone. Those sick may deny that they are ill, but if the others disagree then the execution is carried out. Few of the Padaeoi make it to old age due to this, since they generally fall ill before they are able to grow old. The Indians are said to engage in sexual intercourse in the open. Those Indians who dwell far to the north than the others “have a way of life nearly identical to that of the Bactrians” and are considered the most warlike and are those who engage in the collection of gold from the giant ants in the desert.

Ctesias states that the Indians are quite just, and that they worship in the name of the sun and the moon in a sacred, uninhabited region of the country. India is also home to a group of men called “pygmies”, who grow no taller than 3 feet in height, and grow out their hair and beards in place of clothes. They are considered the most just people and follow the same customs as the other groups of Indians, and are professed to be so good at archery that a group of 3,000 pygmies supposedly accompanies the king of the Indians.

The Indian judicial system works by way of consumption of a substance that flows from a river that congeals like cheese. “If three obols worth of the curdled substance is ground down and drunk in water, whoever drinks it speaks out about everything they have done, because the person becomes deranged and mad for a day.” The king of the Indians uses this as a sort of truth serum, and if someone is accused by a crime then they consume this substance and if they confess are ordered to commit suicide by starvation. If they remain silent, they are considered innocent. Supposedly the Indians do not suffer from headaches, eye infections, toothaches, mouth sores, or any degenerative diseases but rather live to be up to 150 or even 200 years old.

According to Arrian’s source Megasthenes, the Indians did not make war around their neighbors, nor did their neighbors make war upon them, until Alexander arrived. The Indians prepare themselves for battle with cymbals and drums, and wear clothes that resemble those of Dionysian Bacchants. One group of Indians, the Sibae, supposedly dressed in skins since they claimed to have descended from the men who had been left behind from Heracles’ campaign in India. But Arrian does not believe this to have been the Heracles revered by the Greeks but rather some other Heracles. The Indians, according to Megasthenes via Arrian, are divided into 118 tribes. Long ago the Indians were nomadic and wandered as the Scythians do, nor did they build cities or altars. Dionysus supposedly came to India and brought with him the convention of wine, as well as agriculture, husbandry, how to honor the gods, and a monarchy, before leaving. The Sourasenians, a tribe with two great cities, farmed oysters and considered women marriageable at seven years of age, and supposedly their men only lived to the age of forty years at the most. Arrian attributes this to the idea that if men die quickly, they must mature more quickly, and due to this the women no doubt follow a similar pattern and therefore seven would in fact be a marriageable age. Arrian also claims that the Indians never prepared for war outside of their home country because of their sense of justice. Supposedly the Indians do not make monuments for their dead but rather believe men’s virtues and the songs sung for them are a sufficient memorial. There are supposedly so many Indian cities that it is impossible to write down the number, and they build their cities near the rivers and coasts of wood so as to prevent degradation from constant rainfall, while those in high places are made from bricks and clay. Slavery supposedly did not exist in Indian society.

Pomponius Mela states that certain Indians kill no animals nor do they think it good to eat meat. Some will eat fish, however. Some kill their parents before they are overcome by illness or old age, as though they are a sacrificial animal. They also think that it is extremely right and pious to consume the innards of those people killed for such reasons. If old age or disease is allowed to come upon them, they go far off from the community and await death. Some go as far as throwing themselves into fires.

Wise Men
Arrian claims that the Indians are divided into seven groups: 1. The Wisemen, who offer sacrifices and give advice concerning private sacrifices, who make prophecies, and who live naked. 2. The farmers, who are the most plentiful and work the land and pay taxes to their kings and independent cities. It is considered wrong to attack these farmers during a war. 3. The third group is the herdsmen, who tend sheep and cattle and live as nomads in the mountians. They hunt birds and wild animals, and pay taxes from their herds. 4. The fourth group is the craftsmen and merchants, who serve in public offices, pay taxes on their work (except those who craft weaponry), and take payment from the community. 5. The fifth group is the warriors, who are second in numbers only to the farmers and enjoy the most freedom and contentment since they practice only military matters while others make their weapons and provide them with horses and take care of the cleaning of their weapons and maintenance of their camps. 6. The sixth group is called the guardians or overseers, who oversee what happens in cities and in the vast lands, and report back to the king or the magistrates of independent cities. Supposedly they never provide false accounts, and no Indian has ever been accused of lying. 7. The seventh group is made up of the counselors of kings and magistrates. It is a small group, but supposedly the most eminent in terms of justice and wisdom. Rulers, provincial officials, generals, stewards, and overseers are chosen. It is forbidden to marry outside one’s group, and it is not legal for one man to pursue two crafts or to change from one group to a different one. However, one can become a Wise Man from any of the groups.

Strabo claims Megasthenes as his source as well, and supposedly the Wise men of India who dwell in mountains sing praises to Dionysus and mimic him in manner of dress, ointment, and dyes. The king of the Indians is accompanied by bell-ringers and drummers wherever he goes. The Wise men of the plains regions, however, honor Heracles. Strabo records that Megasthenes also divides the Wise men into Brahmins and Sramans. The Brahmins supposedly give sound advice and counsel to the people, especially mothers. They pass their time in groves in front of the city and live frugally by sleeping on straw and using hides for clothes while abstaining from sexual intercourse and meat. People remain silent while they speak, and are considered contemptible if they break this rule. After living in this austere manner for thirty-seven years, Brahmin are allowed to live lives of significantly more luxury and freedom and take on numerous wives with the intention of fathering numerous children similar to themselves in demeanor and wisdom. They do not philosophize to their wives, however, so as to prevent them from telling things to profane men and to ensure that their wives will remain subject to them. The Brahmins also insist that there is a fifth element beyond the original four, which comes from the heavens and the stars.

The Sramans are split into several groups: 1. The Hylobii live in trees and eat leaves and fruits, and abstain from drinking and sexual intercourse. They associate themselves with kings, however they do so through messengers. They are consulted concerning the causes of things and any dealings with the gods. 2. The doctors are the second group, they are philosophers who concern themselves with humanity. Despite being austere, they live indoors and eat rice and barley which they obtain through begging or through offerings of hospitality. These doctors supposedly can make people more fertile and increase birthrates of male or female children by way of drugs, but utilize grains as cures for illnesses. 3. The others among the Sramans, according to Megasthenes, are prophets and enchanters who practice spells and customs for the dead. They beg in villages and cities as a method of providing for themselves. Supposedly the wives of the Sramans sometimes practice philosophy and also avoid sexual intercourse.

Strabo splits the Wise Men into two groups, the Brahmins and the Pramnae, the former practice physiology and astronomy, and the latter mock them as imposters and stupid and are fond of strife and debate. Many of the Pramnae spend their time naked, or wearing deerskins and living in the mountains.

Taxila
Strabo states that Aristobolus says that those who dwell at Taxila possess numerous “peculiar and novel” customs. Their daughters are brought to the market if they cannot find a husband for them, and their backsides are exposed until a husband is found from the young men who are called forth by a horn such as those used to signal for battle. The dead are tossed to the vultures, and they practice polygamy. Wives are often burned willingly along with their husbands, and those wives who are unwilling to submit are held in disrepute.

Taprobone
In Taprobone, Pliny states that gold and silver and tortoiseshell marble are valued along with pearls and gems. The people there have accumulated far more luxury than the Romans, supposedly, but the people there claim that the Romans make “more a show of ours.” They think no citizen to be a slave, and choose their king from the people due to age, mercy, and lack of children. They worship Heracles, the price of grain is constant, and they have neither courts nor lawsuits. If a king has a child, he must abdicate in order to prevent a hereditary monarchy from forming. If a king is found to be malicious, he is condemned to execution, but not killed. Instead, he is shunned by the entire community. The people of Taprobone dress like Arabs and spend their leisure time hunting tigers and elephants.

Languages of India
A parrot in India has a “human tongue and voice.” It speaks “Indian as does a native speaker and, if taught Greek, would also speak it as a native speaker would.” In the middle of India are black men called Pygmies. They speak the same language as the other Indians In the mountains where the Hyparchus river flows live men with the heads of dogs. “They wear clothes made from wild animal skins and have no language at all except by barking...They understand what the Indians say to them, but they can only respond with barking and hand gestures as the deaf and mute do”

Quoting Nearchus, Strabo reports that some Indians “write script upon tightly woven linen (though others report that they do not use an alphabet at all).” According to an ambassador from Taprobone (Sri Lanka), Chinese merchants “make harsh sounds with their mouths and use no language for trade” Indian snakecharmers “weave golden letters into a scarlet robe, cast a sleeping spell on the letters, and place it before the snake’s hole. This robe conquers the immovable eyes of the snake. They also sing to it many songs of secret wisdom, which lead it to lift its neck out of its hole and fall asleep upon the letters. And then the Indians rush forward and fall upon the sleeping snake with axes”

Food
The Padaeoi, an Indian tribe eat raw flesh. They also commit cannibalism. Due to this, whenever somebody is sick in the tribe they are killed by their closest friends so that it does not spoil the meat. Old people are sacrificed and eaten as well but few reach that stage. Another Indian tribe only eat grass and a large husked grain similar to millet which they boil before eating.

In India, there is a river of honey that flows from a rock. There is also a mountain where water congeals like cheese. It is used as a method of extracting truth from people. Starvation is a method of death. The Cunocephaloi are hunters who cook the meat in the sun. They also raise many domestic herds, drink the milk and whey from sheep’s milk. They eat the fruit of the spitachorus which is sweet and can be dried to make fruit similar to raisins. There is a tribe beyond them that drinks nothing but milk from the animals they raise, and there is a use of a sweet root to cause them to vomit everything in the evening. India has the tastiest cheese and wine. Indians do not waste animals they hunt. They eat and wear the clothing. They also eat tree bark and used eat the animals raw until Dionysius came to India. This arrival brings brought wine, seeds, agricultural knowledge, yoking oxen and as such made many nomads Indian farmers. Distinction of food and task noted by Arrian in the division of the people. The Wise Men eat seasonal fruit and tree bark. The farmers are the biggest group, and are able to tend the land peacefully as it is considered wrong to attack them. Herdsmen are another group and are nomads who hunt birds and wild animals.

Strabo discusses the different customs of the tribes of India. A tribe that live near the Ganges, do not have mouths and as such nourish themselves from the vapours of roasting meats, fruits, and scents of flowers with their air-hole Wise Men abstain from eating meat so as to be in line with a frugal lifestyle for their profession. The Hylobii live among trees and eat leaves and wild fruits. They avoid wine. Calanus a Wise Men, tell Onesicritus historian for Alexander the Great about the history of India. Once barley-groat and wheat-meal grew everywhere, springs of water, milk, honey, wine, olive oil flower everywhere. But due to this over-indulgence, man became arrogant and were given a life of toil instead. Some Indians do not kill and eat animals although others believe that only fish nourishes them. They think it is pious to eat the innards of their parents who they kill before they grew ill or old.

Animals
Herodotus speaks of ants that are larger than foxes but smaller than dogs that dig up soil that contains gold-dust in much the same way as Greek ants dig up regular soil. He also speaks of camels which are known by the Greeks, but he adds trivia that they have four leg and thigh bones in each leg, and their genitals point backwards Ctesias writes of elephants that knock down walls, large tailed monkeys, a large parrot that speaks with a human voice. He also talks about the martichor, animals with the faces of men, bodies large as wolves with appearance lions and scorpion tails, who shoot barbs from their tails that kill anything in one hit, save elephants. He talks of Griffins, with the bodies of lions and the heads and talons of birds, covered in red and black feathers who live in the mountains. He also speaks of animals with white bodies and purple heads, who have one large horn and can run as fast as a horse as well as being very strong. He also speaks of worms, born in the indus river, that are 10.5 feet long and grasp animals with their two teeth, one on top and one on bottom Arrian says that the Indians have crocodiles just as the Egyptians do, as well as other fish from the Nile, but there is conflicting evidence on whether or not they have hippopotami. Strabo speaks of a type of orion, called the catreus, which sings sweetly and looks almost like the peacock Pomponius Mela refers to the same ants as Herodotus, which are as large as small dogs and dig up gold as well as serpents whose venom could take down an elephant. Philostratus says that the land of India is filled with snakes, which he separates into marsh, plains/foothills and mountain snakes. Marsh snakes are sluggish, 52 feet long, with black scales, have no crests, and are less scaly than others. Plains snakes come from the foothills to hunt and are longer, faster and better than marsh snakes with crests, beards and silvery scales. Mountain snakes are longer than plains snakes with golden scales, curly beards, large eyebrows and fiery crests.